Architecture Design of Religious Temples

Architecture Design of Religious Temples ABSTRACT Over time new inventions and discoveries have taken place in bringing advancement to technology. So the society, people, and their mentality gets adapted to the technological advancement. The things used by them get modified, so do their tastes. Similarly there is also a huge change in the environment, architecture, the spaces they use, the type of food they have, etc. Considering these changes in the society, there is also a huge change in the way a TEMPLE; a place of worship is related to the society. Over centuries the temples’ function changed from a social institution to a place of community gathering, though there is no considerable change in its design. Is it due to imitation of the architectural form from one generation to other? Does this piece of architecture tells us about the society of this period as other pieces of architecture do? Does it still show the advancement in the technology? Is it still run under high patronage? This dissertation attempts to deliberate upon these issues and to arrive on a solution on how a contemporary temple should look like. INTRODUCTION In Hinduism ‘TEMPLE’ (mandir) is a structure that houses the gods (Encyclopaedia). It was designed to be used as a focus for all aspects of life, namely, religious, cultural, educational and social. It helps a visitor to transcend from his world so that he connects with the supreme authority, the GOD. They are also taken as places of enlightenment and liberation. Hence the principles of designing temples were derived keeping everything in mind. Initially the temple did function the way it was designed to be. A piece of architecture is said to reflect the time and the type of society to which it belongs. There is a change in everything around us. We started living and working in multi storey apartments with glass facades leaving behind the huts and bungalows. But a considerable change in temples is not witnessed. After the development of the temple typology, later was just imitation or embellishment. ‘In real world of architectural construction, temples were built by imitation: one generation copying the predecessor or one rival architect, but always with some minor modifications to keep client interest alive.’ (Oijevaar, 2007) IMPORTANCE OF TEMPLE IN THE PAST A Temple was once the most important building in the society. It proved to be the divine power, the tallest building in the society. The king paid patronage to the construction of it. It also symbolised the power and richness of the kingdom. Hence, a huge land was allocated and a huge amount of money was commissioned in the construction. Lot of masons, engineers, sculptors and labourers were engaged in its design and execution. The making of a temple was a big fair which continued over years depending on the hugeness of the temple. There are temples that were built over the reins of two to three dynasties. The making of temple was also a mode of employment in the kingdom. DESIGN DERIVATION Temples marked the transition of the Vedic religion into Hinduism. The notion of symbolising everything important with a human figure and making idols to worship them led to the emergence of a TEMPLE. Initially the typology was inspired from the Buddhist architecture. The first remarkable temple, the Durga Temple at Aiholi was said to be a chaitya hall with a peek on the top. The notion of ‘cave in a mountain’ was imitated by the architects of that period which led to the development of an inner sanctum or garbha griha, a place where the idol was placed. A pillared hall known as mandapa was designed in front of it so that people can stand and worship. Hence the initial temple was just a building made as a replica of a cave in a mountain with just two rooms namely garbha griha for the idol and a mandapa for other activities respectively. These were square rooms (square taken as a holy shape according to vastu shastra) covered with a slab above so that the devotees are not disturbed by any external elements. The examples of such temples are found in various places around Karnataka (Aihole) which was taken as the place of experimentation for temple architecture. After the development of the basic plan type in Aihole, now the problem emerged in giving it a proper shape so that it becomes a magnificent piece of architecture so that it overpowers the society. Hence the need of a dominating feature in the building emerged which later gave rise to a vertical shrine or shikara. In initial examples one can notice shikara only on the garbha griha with a flat roof on the mandapa but in course of time the flat roof on mandapa was also replaced by a shikara (smaller than that on the garbha griha). Slowly the priest started living next to the temple, the school (Veda patashala) where younger boys were taught Vedas also became a function of the temple which led to the development of more number of small rooms around the temple. Also the functions like entertainment in terms of dance or/and music performances for god, the place to feed people with the prasadam led to development of more number of mandapas. The temple with its mandapas, other small deities (generally someway related to the main deity), pundits’’ house, Veda patashala, temple tank, etc. came to be known as temple complex. Finally a huge wall was built around it to safeguard the place allotted to temple with an entrance also known as gopuram. Also the temples were developed in a way that it gives a visual feast to the visitor entering it so that he enters into a different world mentally. This is done by designing the interiors of temple and decorating them with sculptures, paintings and inscriptions from various books like bagawadgita, Ramayana, etc. Though the development seemed to be very common all over the country, the aspect of regionalism has played an important role in the development of a temple’s design. Hence many differences have been noticed in the various temples of different regions. One known as the north Indian or the Nagara had a different approach of designing compared to the one of South Indian or the Dravidian. Still the essential features of design namely garbha griha, mandapa, shikara remain to be present in both the styles though they appeared differently. TERMS: Vimana/ Prasada/ Shrine: ‘The shrine proper is termed as Vimana (measured out) in the southern context, the northern equivalent being Prasada (palace; literally seat of the deity)’ (Hardy, 2007). It contains a sanctum, garbha griha, usually square. While some early shrines seem to have been flat roofed, a Nagara or Dravida shrine has a superstructure as an integral part. The interior of the super structure is rarely accessible, and sometimes filled with solid and rubble. Shrines may be rectangular, apsidal, circular or octagonal. However the garbha griha generally remains in square shape, except for the rectangular shrines. Most of the plans are square or square generated giving importance to the four cardinal directions. Generally square generated orthogonal plans undergo maximum number of projections and evolve towards a more pronounced central emphasis. Garbha Griha: The inner sanctum is known as garbha griha. The garbha griha is a small dark room in which the idol is placed. Derived from the concept of ‘cave in a mountain’. It is generally square or derivative of square in shape. Not accessible for general public, private space of god. Mandapa/Jagmohana: All the shrines have a porch which allows people or the god servants to carry out their activities known as mandapa. A mandapa might be a closed one or an open porch. The closed mandapas get light through the door ways. The number of doorways to the mandapa may vary from one to three. In addition to it the thick walls of mandapas have bright holes of stone traceries as windows for the light to penetrate inside. Sometimes light pouches are also given in the roof of the structure. The light entered here reflects from the floor and reaches the ceiling creating a divine effect inside the mandapa. Hence the ceilings are carved in most of the mandapas. The mandapas were constructed in post and beam construction simply imitating the wooden architecture that existed before. The distance between the columns depended on the length of the stone which itself is dependent on the grade and distance of the quarry. Spans hardly exceeded 2.5m. The initial mandapas (6th -7th centuries) had flat roofs where a stone was laid out as a ceiling with a few carvings from inside so as to create a sophisticated effect. From 8th century onwards the mandapas started reflecting the shrine itself though in a comparatively smaller scale. A central bay started dominating the plan which also acts as the axis. ‘corbelled construction- the method of stepping horizontal courses progressively forward to cover a space, prevented from toppling by the weight of masonry pressing down at the rear- developed considerably from the 10th century’(Hardy, 2007). Pradakshina patha: The circumambulatory path one takes around the temple in a clockwise direction is termed as pradakshina. Here the exterior of the sanctum conveys the idea of an inner temple. For this especially a path is built around the temple with stones and this path is known as pradakshina patha. It is believed to be a scared path. It is taken in clockwise direction as suns path is clockwise. Natya mandapa: In later time there were a numerous editions in a temple. The temple started developing more as a social institution; hence things like entertainment also became the part of its rituals. To continue these rituals a different mandapa, generally connected or a stand-alone structure in front of the jagmohana was built. This mandapa is known as natya mandapa. There is a huge change in the way the natya mandapa was built when we compare from lingaraj to konark. It has seen a huge development due to the increase of the project size or patronage. Bhog mandapa: A mandapa was also designed in the later temples where people can sit and have the prasadam of the temple. Basically they are pillared halls with beautifully carved pillars where people sit and eat. Bhog meaning prasadam is how the name of it has been arrived. This is not usually found in large number of temples. A feature present in developed Nagara temples from lingaraj to puri. It disappeared after puri in konark. Gopuram: The entrance gateway of a temple is known as gopuram. It was initially a mark able structure, smaller than the shrine proper to mark the entrance to a temple. Over time it evolved to be the most important structure and hence its size increased. The tallest and the most magnificent gopurams are seen in meenakshi temple Madurai, where the gopuram looks like commanding the nature around. Gopurams are generally found in Dravidian temples. Coming to Nagara temples, a gopuram was found in mukteswar, but in further development it just disappeared. NAGARA: This typology is basically defined to possess curvilinear spires with square plans. After the experimentation of the basic design in Aihole, the further development of this typology happened in Odisha near Bhubaneswar. Bhubaneswar became the experimentation ground. The first notable temple here is known as parasurameswar, a temple devoted for the god Shiva built in 7th century AD. ‘The temple has a flat roofed rectangular pillared hall known as jagmohana attached to a tri-ratha deul (sanctum), which carried a squat heavy- shouldered shikara. The carvings are known for their charm and static volume’ (ASI). Next remark-able development is marked by the temple of mukteswara, built in 10th century AD with the introduction of a gopuram and a boundary wall to the temple. Mukteswara is defines as ‘a dream realised in sandstone’ (Ganguly, 1961), ‘a gem in Odishan architecture’ (ASI). Elegantly decorated from top to bottom it is designed with a low heighted boundary wall and an entrance torana. This temple is known for its sculptural beauty and also its archaeological advancement. From the flat roof over the Jagmohana it is developed into a pyramidal deul. This was achieved by slight corbelling of the stones, yet it was an achievement thinking of the time it was designed. The deul is pancha ratha on plan and stands on a low platform. The peda deul (pyramidal shikara) has two latticed windows on north and south, where the outer most part of the window depicts humorous scenes of a monkey’s life. The ceiling of jagmohana is deliberately carved in the form of a blown lotus. The pillars of this temple are very much notable. The introduction of snake pillars, relief figures and figurines, gaja simhas on pilasters was all new. The torana, known as makara torana has two crocodiles’ heads both towards two different sides and their tails meeting each other. The carvings of different goddess also present on it. The basement of the pillars supporting the arch, square in section contains on each face a miniature temple flanked at the top by gaja simhas. The sixteen- sided shafts consist each of four blocks of stone of which the topmost has loops of pearl strings hanging down from the mouths of row of kritti mukhas above. The next temple that marked a remarkable development is the temple of Raja- Rani. Though it went a little off in the development process, it still has its own contribution in the development of Nagara typology. The entire Shiva temples end with the name of ishwar ex. Parasurameswar, mukteswara, etc. there is a story behind the name of this temple. This temple was expected to be a pleasure resort for the king and the queen as the idol is missing but M.M.Ganguly rightly rejects it by talking about the absence of the stables, out houses, etc. ‘ The name Raja-Rani has been derived from very fine grain yellowish sandstone known as Raja Rani in common parlance’(Ganguly, 1961). Due to the missing of the deity inside the temple, there are still confusions if the temple was dedicated to lord Shiva or lord Vishnu. ‘The later milestone in development, the temple of Ananth Vasudev being a Vaishnavite temple and on the examination ‘khura pristha’ or the upper plinth carved as it is with the petals of lotus it appears that the temple was meant for being dedicated to Vishnu’ (Ganguly, 1961). Hence there is no confirmation on the deity of this temple. The torana that appeared in mukteswara was lost by the time Raja Rani was made. There is not much difference in the plan form. The deul is a pancha ratha plan that stands on a certain plinth. In line next is the Vaishnavite temple, the temple of Vishnu in the form of lord Krishna known as Ananth Vasudev. Here two new mandapas have seen to be emerged in the regular plan form. By then the role of temple in a society has drastically increased. The more now became more of a social institution rather than just a religious place. Hence the functions like entertainment, donation, etc. have come into the temple premises increasing the scale of the temple and giving rise to the natya and Bhog mandapas. All these mandapas were covered by a pyramidal deul (pida deul), except for the rekha deul on the garbha griha. Rekha deul is tallest of all with decreasing height of each deul in order. In plan Lingaraj temple was very similar to Ananth Vasudev but it is a shaivite temple. The plan form has evolved to the proper extent in Ananth Vasudev and as time passed the hugeness of the temple increased. Lingaraj is the most notable temple all over Odisha. It stands a mid of a numerous small shrines. Like Ananth Vasudev it has a three chambers frontal part consisting of jagmohana, natya mandapa and Bhog mandapa. There are clear evidences that the other three mandapas are later addition to the existing structure though there is a continuation of sculptures found. Shifting from Bhubaneswar the next remarkable temple was built in puri commonly known as jagannath mandir. For the first time a temple was designed in the form of a chariot. Chariot being the vehicle of god, the temples also have taken the form of a chariot. This temple has a garbha griha, jagmohana, natya and Bhog mandapas placed on a ratha. The ratha was basically a raised platform with wheels carved on it. The scale of the temple was huge compared to Lingaraj, though the plan form remained the same. A complex was designed for it with boundary walls and a proper entrance way was provided. Inside the complex were numerous small shrines dedicated to different gods along with the main shrine. Konark temple defined as the ‘black pagoda’ (Behra, 2007) is situated in Konark, a place near Bhubaneswar. The scale of the temple is very huge compared to the rest of the buildings of that era. It is considered as one of the best in terms of technological advancement of that time. Coming to the plan form, this temples’ form is a little different compared to the jagannath mandir, though it is also designed to be a chariot. A chariot of the sun god which had 12 pairs of wheels carved out on its plinth. Over the chariot are the garbha griha and the jagmohana. A natya mandapa remains to be a standalone structure in the complex. The complex contains other smaller shrines along with the main shrine. All these temples represented the time in which they were built. They represented the society, the richness of the kingdom, and the technological advancement of that time which is not exactly what the temples of day-to day represent. Further I would like to go through the development in Dravidian typology, refer to the designing of temples today and there relation with society and technology and would like to end with the parameters required in designing a contemporary temple. REFERENCES Online dictionary (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Temple) Oijevaar K.J, sept 2007, The South Indian Hindu temple building design system on the architecture of shilpa shastra and the Dravidian style, Delft University of technology, Netherlands, pg.4 Karuna Sagar Behra, 1993, Temples of Orissa, Orissa sahitya academy Krishna Chandra Panigrahi, 1961, Archaeological remains at Bhubaneswar, Kitab Mahal, pg.87-101 Adam Hardy, 2007, The temple architecture of India, John Willey and Sons ltd. Britain, pg.90-105 Karuna Sagar Behra, 2005, Konark – The Black Pagoda, Publications Division, Ministry of Information Broadcasting, Government of India

R.F. Insurance :: essays research papers

R.F. Insurance is a commercial insurance company based on the east coast. In 1984, a group of graduate students were given a project to asses job design, career development, and job motivation in a particular district office of R.F. Insurance. The findings of this group despite the limited number of respondents permitted to take the student’s survey are more or else what can be expected given the circumstances surrounding employment at R.F. Insurance. The district office operates under the control of the district office manager who is essentially in charge of a sales team, claim adjusters, several office clerks, and one loss prevention engineer. The sales team is in charge setting up the appropriate account for the customers need and finishing the sale. Information about the customer is provided by the loss prevention engineer who meets with clients and helps to evaluate the risk of insuring a potential client. Once the sale is completed the district manager assigns the policy to one of the claims adjusters based on the complexity or importance of the policy and policy holder. From this point on till the policy is cancelled, the claims adjuster will handle ever aspect of customer service associated with the insurance policy. The rest of the paperwork, filing, and processing is handled by the clerks of the office. Each clerk has specific tasks and is responsible for filling out a daily work sheet which the lead clerk collects and c reates a weekly report on their work. When the team of graduate students began their analysis they did so under the agreement that the district office manager had control and veto power over the survey’s and interviews being used. However, upon discussing matters in more detail the district office manager further limited the students to questionnaires only. The questionnaires were to include a modification of the Job Characteristics Inventory and a 24 question survey. The district office manager instantly revoked the clerical staff from participating in the questionnaire and also vetoed six questions he did not like. He distributed the questionnaires to only 5 sales people, 4 claims adjusters, and only 3 of 8 clerks. The results of the questionnaire were as expected. The 9 higher ranking employees generally reported a more positive experience with job development, utilization, influence, and advancement then did the 3 clerks. From the data collected you can only infer that the other 5 clerks would more then likely share similar feelings.

Epic of Beowulf Essay - Qualities of a Hero :: Epic of Beowulf Essay

Beowulf:   Qualities of a Hero A hero is someone that helps others no matter what the situation. There are many qualities that a hero must posses such as bravery, courage, strength, intelligence and honor. These qualities alone are not enough to make a hero. They must also be pure at heart, fight for the good of mankind and only fight when it is to protect the people and not out of revenge. Beowulf is everything a hero should be, but contains a few qualities that a hero should not posses. When Beowulf sailed with his men to Herot he had one goal, to rid the hall of Grendal. Beowulf was under no obligation to destroy Grendal and never asked for anything in return for his services. A true hero would never ask for money or anything of value. He put his life at risk to save the people of Herot, who he didn’t even know, out of his own good nature Great strength has been a trait that has been identified with heroes in many stories and legends. Than he saw hanging on the wall, a heavy Sword, hammered by giants, st rong And blessed with their magic, the best of all weapons But so massive that no ordinary man could lift... (II. 1557-1560) Beowulf possessed great strength that separated him from other men. Being able to use a sword that no ordinary man was able to carry gives the feeling that Beowulf is something more than a human being. It makes him special and causes him to stand out from all other men. Fame is something that makes a hero more noted. Beowulfs popularity had spread all over the world. He never let this go to his head and he never thought that he was better than everyone else because of it. â€Å"Your fame is everywhere, my friend,/Reaches to the ends of the earth, and you hold it in your heart wisely...† (II.1704-1706). A hero should not be foolish or full of himself. Unferth said: You’re Beowulf, are you- the same Boastful fool who fought a swimming Match with Brecca, both of you daring and young and proud,exploring the deepest Seas, risking your lives for no rea son But the danger? (II. 506-511) A hero should not have to prove to himself or to anyone else that he is brave, fearless or courageous. If he is pure a heart and his intentions are good then he can be considered a true hero.

Dying with Grace, Living in Peace: Hospice Care in America Essay exampl

The beginning of life is celebrated. Books and resources are shared among friends and family in preparation for becoming a new parent. So, what happens as one approaches the end of life? Unfortunately, the same care and sharing rarely occurs in those circumstances and many face the process of dying unprepared. Though most people state they would prefer to die at home, this is often not where death occurs. Many Americans spend their last days attached to medical apparatus that keeps the body alive, but it does not allow for communication with family and often requires heavy sedation. Additionally, this level of treatment comes at a high price. As a society, we must become as comfortable in addressing the end of life process as we are with the beginning of life. One way that this can be done more effectively is through increased knowledge and use of hospice care. Hospice care is a viable option that provides health care cost savings, comfort to the patient, and support to the caregivers, however as hospice systems become more commercialized, care must be taken to avoid the pitfalls that are inherent in larger organizations. Hospice care is a relatively young option in the United States, with the first hospice organization founded in 1971 after gaining acceptance in England in the 1950s (Jensen, 2012). Hospice care is provided to those who are diagnosed with a terminal condition that is expected to culminate in death within six months. Unlike regular health care which focuses on curative procedures, hospice services focus on the comfort of the patient in order to ease the process of dying. These services provide benefits to the patient and the caregivers, as well as showing cost savings. It is no secret that health... ...NHPCO facts and figures: Hopice care in America. Alexandria, VA. Perry, J. E., & Stone, R. C. (2011). In the business of dying: Questioning the commercialization of hospice. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 39(2), 224-234. doi:1111/j.1748-720X.2011.0059.x Robinson, L., & Segal, J. (2012). Quality of life at the end of life: A guide to hospice and palliative care at home or in a hospice facility. Retrieved from Helpguide.org: www.helpguide.org/elder/hospice_care.htm Seeger, P. (2012). Turn, turn, turn lyrics. Retrieved from metrolyrics.com: http://www.metrolyrics.com/turn-turn-turn-to-everything-there-is-a-season-lyrics-the-byrds.html Taylor, D., Ostermann, J., Houtven, C. V., Tulsky, J., & Steinhauser, K. (2007). What length of hospice use maximizes reduction in medical expenditures near death in the US Medicare program? Social Science & Medicine, 1466-1478.

Pepsi Vision and Mission Essay

Headquartered in Purchase, New York, with Research and Development Headquarters in Valhalla, The Pepsi Cola Company began in 1898 by a Pharmacist and Industrialist Caleb Bradham, but it only became known as PepsiCo when it merged with Frito Lay in 1965. Until 1997, it also owned KFC, Pizza Hut, and Taco Bell, but these fast-food restaurants were spun off into Tricon Global Restaurants, now Yum! Brands, Inc. PepsiCo purchased Tropicana in 1998, and Quaker Oats in 2001. In December 2005, PepsiCo surpassed Coca-Cola Company in market value for the first time in 112 years since both companies began to compete. PEPSICO INDIA: PepsiCo gained entry to India in 1988 by creating a joint venture with the Punjab government-owned Punjab Agro Industrial Corporation (PAIC) and Voltas India Limited. This joint venture marketed and sold Lehar Pepsi until 1991, when the use of foreign brands was allowed; PepsiCo bought out its partners and ended the joint venture in 1994. 5] Others claim that firstly Pepsi was banned from import in India, in 1970, for having refused to release the list of its ingredients and in 1993, the ban was lifted, with Pepsi arriving on the market shortly afterwards. PepsiCo’s responsibility is to continually improve all aspects of the world in which we operate – environment, social, economic – creating a better tomorrow than today. † Our MISSION is put into action through programs and a focus on environmental stew ardship, activities to benefit society, and a commitment to build shareholder value by making PepsiCo a truly sustainable company. Our VISION is to be the world’s premier consumer Products Company focused on convenient foods and beverages. We seek to produce financial rewards to investors as we provide opportunities for growth and enrichment to our employees, our business partners and the communities in which we operate. And in everything we do, we strive for honesty, fairness and integrity. As PepsiCo has become one of the country’s leading food and beverage companies, now they are focusing even globally. PepsiCo has built an expensive food and beverage business. PepsiCo `nourishes consumers with a range of products from treats to healthy eats that deliver joy as well as nutrition and always, good taste. PepsiCo has become one of the largest multinational investors in the country; PepsiCo has established a business which aims to serve the long term dynamic needs of consumers in India. PepsiCoprovides various opportunities to the employees like they provide direct and indirect employment to around 150000 people.

Agricultural exploitation and human effects on the environment

Humans rely on earth's resources for a high quality of life. As the population surge continues, more food has to be produced to meet the high demands of people. However in relying on more and more resources, the population have forgotten to stop and think about the environment. The growth in human population has caused: * More waste is being produced. * More pollution is being caused. * Non-renewable energy resources, such as coal, oil and natural gas, are being used up rapidly. * Raw materials are being used up rapidly. Agricultural production has been rising over the last few decades. Production has been rising due to an increase in the development of various crops and animals, and more intensive methods of farming. New varieties if crops and farm animals have been developed by artificial selection and genetic engineering. Crops can be genetically engineered to be resistant to pests. Many foods now contain genetically modified organisms. Some humans think that these will help food production and maintain high standards of living for the population. However, there are people that believe that we have the ability to produce adequate food without genetically modified organisms. They believe that the genetically modified organisms should be researched into for long term effects on health and environment. Agriculture is becoming more and more mechanised and the conditions can be controlled much more than before. On many arable farms machines have replaced labourers almost entirely. Every stage of crop production is carried out by machines. Large amounts of pesticides are used to increase crop yield by reducing competition from weeds and minimizing losses to disease and pests. Inorganic and organic fertilisers keep mineral levels high in the soil. Without fertilisers, heavy harvesting, of most crops would deplete the soil of the minerals. A deficiency of any one mineral limits plant growth. Fertilisers can increase crop yields however above a particular level, the increase in crop yield for each unit of fertiliser used gets less. Worse to that is that if a high over use of fertiliser is used then it will result in a decrease in crop yield and also have the long lasting effect on the environment. Among the most intensive forms of farming are greenhouse cultivation of plants and factory farming of animals. Both these methods grow organisms indoor in a confined space under controlled environmental conditions. Growing plants in greenhouses allows conditions such as light intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide concentrations, and mineral levels to be controlled artificially. Many people are against factory farming due to the following reasons: * Intensive cultivation is not cost effective because it relies on the heavy use of fossil fuels * Antiobioitcs, pesticides, and growth-promoting substances may harm human health and the environment. * Excessive use of antibioticvs in farm animals is contributing to the evolution of antibiotic resistance * Intensive cultivation isn't cost effective and is damaging to the environment whereas organic farming isn't dependent on fossil fuels and is better for the environment. Land clearance for cultivation and for grazing reduces the number of habitats available. Tropical forests are cleared for timber and land use on a massive scale, destroying important habitats and making the soil unstable. Destruction of a habitat reduces variation and the gene pool. Maximum use is made of available agricultural land by intensive cultivation, including the use of nitrate fertilisers. This causes there to be soil erosion and eutrophication. Agricultural pests cause economic damage to crops and farm animals. They can have a terrible effect especially in monocultures in which only one crop is grown. These systems are simpler than natural ecosystems and usually lack the predators of pests. Also, the growing the same crop on the same land again and again may allow the pests to increase in number. Pests attack crop plants and animals – which reduces yield. They cause disease, spoil stored food, compete for resources and increase the chance of pathogenic disease. These factors have a bad effect leading to a reduced amount of food produced and a huge economic loss for farmers. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Pests for plants include weeds, insects and crop diseases à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Weeds compete with crops for water, light and ions, – reducing crop yields à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Insects damage crops – By eating leaves – photosynthesis – Tunnelling into stems – transport – Attacking roots – water uptake – Destroying buds and shoots Pesticides are poisonous chemicals used to control organisms considered to be harmful on agriculture or organisms involved in disease transmission. Pesticides should be specific, non persistent (biodegradable) and shouldn't accumulation. Pest control cannot completely remove a pest. The point is to remove enough of a pest so the farmer can get a good profit return. Pests can also be controlled chemically. This involves the use of herbicides, fungicides, or insecticides to kill the pests. The chemicals can be sprayed onto the crop, applied as powders or smokes in enclosed areas, sprayed onto animals or added to animal feed. Advantages of chemical control: * Pests are destroyed quickly and fairly cheaply * Chemicals can be applied on a small level * Doesn't need a high level of skill * Very effective means of control Disadvantages of control: * Chemicals aren't specific and can damage non target insects. With the removal of insect predators, there may be a resurgence in the pest * Pesticides contain poisonous chemicals which could enter into food chains likely to then kill birds, fish or mammals. * Pests could become resistant to pesticides. * Chemical residue could harm humans Chlorinated organic chemicals such as DDT were constant and remained in the environment for long periods, which is not what is required of a modern pesticide. However DDT was over used and this led to resistance from many species of insects. The suitable insecticide is an effective pesticide at low quantities and kills harmful insects. Another key point is that it should have no environmental effects. Researcehrs are constantly making progress on developing on new compounds. In the latest generation of insecticides, the pyrethroid has been developed from the flower of the plant named Pyrethrum. However, the effect of the natural pyrethrum was found to be short term as it was quickly broken down by sunlight. Biochemists then used the natural pyrethrum as a beginning point to develop a much safer, stable compound, suitable for insect control in field crops. Farmers should spray their crops in early morning or late evening to avoid harming passing by bees and ladybirds. Chemical pest control may involve the use of: * Herbicides – for control of weeds * Insecticides – for control of insects * Fungicides – for control of fungi * Molluscicides – for control of slugs and snails There have been many problems with insecticides since the primary idea behind insecticides was to kill all the pests possible – the effects on non-target organisms wasn't looked into, some of which are beneficial. Biological control target natural enemies to maintain the population of pest species. A beneficial organism (agent) is deployed against a harmful organism (target). The purpose is to reduce the pest population down to a level which is economically profitable. If the pest population was completely wiped out then it would have a counter effect because there would be no food for the natural predator which would soon die out. Advantages of biological pest control: * Can provide long term control if population equilibrium is reached * Even though it is expensive in the short term (introductioin), it can work out cheaper in the longer term * Unlike chemical control, it's highly specific to a pest which means less chance of having an effect on non target organisms. * No environmental contamination * It can be used in a glasshouse situation Disadvantages of biological control * Success needs deep level of skill and research. This can be expensive. * Examples which have gained success are fairly few in number * A thorough amount of knowledge is required about the life cycle. * Possibility of releasing organisms with unknown ecological effects * Consistent input is needed to maintain a population stability There are advantages and disadvantages of both chemical and biological control. Integrated pest management is the merging of the two methods. It is seen as a very effective way of tackling pests. This is achieved by: * Varying cultivation techniques * Use of biological agents * Minimal and well-targeted use of highly selective pesticides. Deforestation is having a effect on the environment. They are being cut down for reasons such as: * Sale of valueable timber * Freeing of land * Clearing land for roads The trees are being cut down at a much faster rate than they can regenerate. The consequences of deforestation are: * Soil erosion – digging and ploughing loosen up the topsoil, which is aiding in the process of soil erosion. * The removal of vegetation affects the regional climate mainly by reducing rainfall which increases speed of desertification. * Deforestation of the watershed causes lowland flooding. The removal of vegetation on the higher slopes of valleys consequents in heavy rain sweeping exposed soil to the floods below. On the lower slopes, plants and leaf litter would act as a sponge and soak up water gradually released into the soil. Instead, due to the absence of plants, only evaporation occurs. This is generally slower than transpiration in returning water vapour to the atmosphere, so soil conditions become wetter. * Climate change – A reduction in the level of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as there is less global synthesis. This leads to global warming. Cutting down forests hasn't much effect on global carbon dioxide levels however since forests burn rapidly releasing lots of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which assists in acid rain and helps towards global warming. Destruction of natural habitats leads to reduction in biodiversity. It is estimated that around 50% of the earth's species live in the rainforests even though rain forests only take up around 10% of the earth's land. If natural habitats are exploited then it could make them become extinct. This may lead to a loss in medical properties of some tropical plants which haven't been looked into. Agricultural is way of combating deforestation. Possible solutions to problems of deforestation: * Managed forests involving the sustainable replanting and regeneration. * Providing protected areas to preserve species. There have been dramatic increases in the intensity and efficiency of commercial methods. This has meant that over-fishing is happening in many areas of the world. Fish are a renewable source. Over-fishing results in a depletion of younger fish, so that the breeding stock can't maintain previous population levels. If the rate at which they are removed exceeds that at which they have been produced, their supply is disappearing. Fishing isn't examined for possible negative issues. In a fish farm, fish are replaced by artificial breeding. However in the ocean, fish are taken out of the sea from humans with no aim to replace them by breeding. Over fishing often causes both a fall in the number of fish and a change in population structure: young smaller fish may become increasingly common as fishing fleets try to maintain the size of the fish they catch. Catching large numbers of small fish before they spawn can seriously reduce their ability of their species to reproduce. This could lead to a terrible fall in the local population of smaller fish. However fishing is likely to halt due to economic reasons, fishing is likely to stop before it can cause extinction. International agreements have been gained on control like: * Enforcing exclusion zones * Imposing quotas * Restricting the mesh size of nets – bigger nets may allow juvenile fish to escape and reproduce. * Having closed seasons for fishing

Driving Homework

Laws Street racing is an illegal activity because it is dangerous and can cause motor vehicle collisions, injuries, and even fatalities of drivers. Street racing is a form of motor racing occurring on public roads, and can either be very well coordinated and planned by drivers in order to avoid authorities or a spontaneous decision. Drivers who decided to street race are putting not only themselves, put also other drivers, as well as pedestrians, in danger.This danger has been demonstrated many times in Canada, and has led to the creation of laws to protect our citizens. For example, in 2006, two men were racing in a Toronto public street, hitting speeds of up to 140 kilometers per hour in an area with a speed limit of 50 kilometers per hour. The two drivers, while racing, struck and killed a taxi cab driver. For this reason, Ontario has laws to protect everyone from the dangers of street racing. Drivers who are involved in street racing face multiple actions from the government.Firs tly, if a street racer is arrested on reasonable grounds, they face an immediate seven day license suspensions, and the drivers vehicle is impounded for seven days. If the driver is convicted in court, they can face multiple penalties. Firstly, the driver faces fines between $2,000 and $10,000, gains 6 demerit points, gets a license suspension of up to two years, and faces a maximum of 6 months in Jail. The driver may also receive a driver license suspension of up to 10 years if the driver is convicted for a second time within 10 years.The use of connected nitrous oxide systems, which enhances acceleration capacities of vehicles, while driving on a highway is also prohibited. Overall, street racing is extremely dangerous. The risk of a serious injury is almost five times greater for vehicles crashing at 50 kilometers per hour or more above the posted speed limit on a highway of 100 kilometers per hour. The risk is even greater on roads with lower speed limits. These laws imposed by the government help greatly to keep our roads safe for everyone. 2.Impaired Driving Impaired driving means driving is a dangerous act characterized by a driver's abilities being compromised by alcohol or drugs. Even one drink can reduce one's ability to concentrate while driving and reduce reaction time to sudden changes. Drinking also causes blurry vision, also compromising driving abilities. The more alcohol, the more dangerous it I to drive. Drugs that affect the brain also affect driving abilities. This includes both certain prescription and over the counter drugs, as well as illegal drugs.There are approximately 13,000 drinking and driving convictions recorded annually in Ontario. Over the past decade, more than 2,000 lives have been lost, and 50,000 people have been injured because of collisions as a result of drunk driving. Impaired driving is a serious crime under the Criminal Code of Canada, and has serious penalties. The consequences for driving with a 0. 05 to 0. 08 blood alcohol concentration level involves, if it is a first time offense, a 3 day license suspension, and a $150 fine. If a driver has a blood alcohol level of over 0. 8 or refuses a take a breath test to detect blood alcohol level, if it is a first time offense, the driver receives a 90 day license suspension, a 7 day vehicle impoundments, a $1 50 fine, must participate in a mandatory alcohol education and treatment program, and must participate in the ignition interlock program. This program is an in-car alcohol reheat screening device that prevents a vehicle from starting if it detects a blood alcohol concentration over 0. 02. In addition, if the driver is convicted of an impaired driving offence under the criminal code of Canada, they will receive a $1000 fine, and a license suspension of 1 year.After the 2nd, 3rd, and all subsequent offenses of impaired driving, consequences are more severe, and can even result in Jail time. Even if you are simply sitting behind the wheel, and not driving the car, you can still be charged with impaired driving. Overall, eliminate the risks of impaired driving. If you are planning on drinking, prepare alternate routes of travel. Impaired driving is not worth the risks it causes to the safety of the driver, passengers, and others on the road. 3. Assignment: Who Causes Collisions?Inexperience can cause collisions because if a driver does not know how to react to a situation, an accident may occur. So a stunt driver who has built their whole life around driving has more experience behind the wheel and is more comfortable with driving compared to someone like myself who has Just begun driving this year does not fully understand driving a car. For example, if one is driving on an icy road, and the car starts to skid and spin, an inexperienced driver might try to steer out of the way immediately.However, an experienced driver would know that you must press on the brakes hard when you are facing the direction you want to go to stop s pinning. A possible way to avoid accidents related to inexperience practice in a safe environment so new drivers have some experience driving a motor vehicle. However, it is also important to learn about what to do in emergencies. Inattention can cause collisions if drivers are not paying attention to the road in front f them. For example, testing instead of looking at the road can mean that you are not paying attention to the most important task.This can mean that you do not notice spontaneous things that happen or what your car is doing. For example, if one is testing on a highway, they may not notice that their car is drifting into the lane of opposing traffic. This could cause a head on collision with another care, which is very dangerous and highly deadly. This kind of collision can cause injuries and fatalities. A solution is to always pay attention to the road, not even looking away for a few seconds. As well, it is important to keep attentive when talking to passengers in a car or listening to the radio.Inconsideration can cause a collision if a person is not being considerate to other drivers' needs. For example, if you cut off another driver with your own car by going into their lane, this could cause them to have to break, and possibly run into you. A solution to this could be to be considerate of other drivers, and not do things that you would not want them to do to you. You should always not assume that someone else will conform to you. Instead, always make sure that you are being safe while driving. Impatience can cause collisions if a driver is very impatient.An example of this is if a driver approaches a traffic light, and the light begins to change to yellow as the driver is still far enough away to brake safely. However, the impatient driver, instead of slowing and stopping, speeds through the lights to get through the yellow light quickly. However, this could cause a collision in the intersection if another car is coming from the other direc tion. A solution is for drivers to understand that waiting a minute for the traffic light to change instead of rushing through a yellow traffic light s better than being in an accident that could possibly cause serious injuries or deaths.Ignorance can cause collisions if a driver is ignorant of the rules of the road, making it dangerous for other drivers. For example, if a driver does not use their turning signals when they turn, this can cause serious collisions. If you do not use your turning signals, this may cause other drivers to not know that you are turning. To other drivers, this could look like you are turning out of nowhere, which could cause them to rear end you, creating a collision. A solution is to turn on your signals approximately 50 meters before you want to make your turn.If you realize you need to turn as you are very close to or already in the intersection, instead of randomly turning without your signals, it is best to instead make a turn at the next intersectio n instead of risking a collision. Inability Irresponsibility can cause collisions being irresponsible could mean that you don't maintain your vehicle properly, and this could cause a critical failure in the vehicle such as inability to brake, therefore your power steering pump could break in the idle of a turn and cause you to lose control.In order to avoid collisions, it is important to be responsible in maintaining your vehicle, including going in for regular checks. This ensures that your are keeping yourself and other drivers safe. Impairment – drunk driving is the most well known, but driving while under the influence of other substances such as ganja (pot) or cocaine can impair your ability to react correctly and in a timely manner. Improper seeing habits – if you can't see the road ahead of you, how do you expect to stay on the road?